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<title>Information model</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Information model</span></span>

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<p>An <b>information model</b> in <a href="Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">software engineering</a> is a representation of concepts and the relationships, constraints, rules, and <a href="Operation_(mathematics)" title="Operation (mathematics)">operations</a> to specify <a href="Semantic_data_model" title="Semantic data model">data semantics</a> for a chosen domain of discourse. Typically it specifies relations between kinds of things, but may also include relations with individual things. It can provide sharable, stable, and organized structure of information requirements or knowledge for the domain context.<sup id="cite_ref-Lee99_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee99-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2></div>

<p>The term <i>information model</i> in general is used for models of individual things, such as facilities, buildings, process plants, etc. In those cases, the concept is specialised to <a href="Facility_information_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Facility information model">facility information model</a>, <a href="Building_information_modeling" title="Building information modeling">building information model</a>, plant information model, etc. Such an information model is an integration of a model of the facility with the data and documents about the facility.

</p><p>Within the field of software engineering and <a href="Data_modeling" title="Data modeling">data modeling</a>, an information model is usually an abstract, formal representation of entity types that may include their properties, relationships and the operations that can be performed on them. The entity types in the model may be kinds of real-world objects, such as devices in a network, or occurrences, or they may themselves be abstract, such as for the entities used in a billing system. Typically, they are used to model a constrained domain that can be described by a closed set of entity types, properties, relationships and operations.

</p><p>An information model provides formalism to the description of a problem domain without constraining how that description is mapped to an actual implementation in software. There may be many mappings of the information model. Such mappings are called <a href="Data_model" title="Data model">data models</a>, irrespective of whether they are <a href="Object_model" title="Object model">object models</a> (e.g. using <a href="Unified_Modeling_Language" title="Unified Modeling Language">UML</a>), <a href="Entity-relationship_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Entity-relationship model">entity relationship models</a> or <a href="XML_schema" title="XML schema">XML schemas</a>.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Information_modeling_languages">Information modeling languages</h2></div>

<p>In 1976, an <a href="Entity_relationship_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Entity relationship model">entity-relationship</a> (ER) graphic notation was introduced by <a href="Peter_Chen" title="Peter Chen">Peter Chen</a>. He stressed that it was a "semantic" modelling technique and independent of any database modelling techniques such as Hierarchical, CODASYL, Relational etc.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since then, <a href="Modeling_language" title="Modeling language">languages for information models</a> have continued to evolve. Some examples are the Integrated Definition Language 1 Extended (<a href="IDEF1X" title="IDEF1X">IDEF1X</a>), the <a href="EXPRESS_(data_modeling_language)" title="EXPRESS (data modeling language)">EXPRESS</a> language and the <a href="Unified_Modeling_Language" title="Unified Modeling Language">Unified Modeling Language</a> (UML).<sup id="cite_ref-Lee99_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee99-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Research by contemporaries of Peter Chen such as J.R.Abrial (1974) and G.M Nijssen (1976) led to today's Fact Oriented Modeling (FOM) languages which are based on linguistic propositions rather than on "entities". FOM tools can be used to generate an ER model which means that the modeler can avoid the time-consuming and error prone practice of manual normalization. Object-Role Modeling language (<a href="Object-Role_Modeling" class="mw-redirect" title="Object-Role Modeling">ORM</a>) and Fully Communication Oriented Information Modeling (<a href="FCO-IM" title="FCO-IM">FCO-IM</a>) are both research results developed in the early 1990s, based upon earlier research.

</p><p>In the 1980s there were several approaches to extend Chen’s Entity Relationship Model. Also important in this decade is REMORA by <a href="Colette_Rolland" title="Colette Rolland">Colette Rolland</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The <a href="Integrated_Computer-Aided_Manufacturing" title="Integrated Computer-Aided Manufacturing">ICAM</a> Definition (IDEF) Language was developed from the U.S. Air Force ICAM Program during the 1976 to 1982 timeframe.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The objective of the ICAM Program, according to Lee (1999), was to increase manufacturing productivity through the systematic application of computer technology. IDEF includes three different modeling methods: <a href="IDEF0" title="IDEF0">IDEF0</a>, <a href="IDEF1" class="mw-redirect" title="IDEF1">IDEF1</a>, and <a href="IDEF2" class="mw-redirect" title="IDEF2">IDEF2</a> for producing a functional model, an information model, and a dynamic model respectively. <a href="IDEF1X" title="IDEF1X">IDEF1X</a> is an extended version of IDEF1. The language is in the public domain. It is a graphical representation and is designed using the ER approach and the relational theory. It is used to represent the “real world” in terms of entities, attributes, and relationships between entities. Normalization is enforced by KEY Structures and KEY Migration. The language identifies property groupings (Aggregation) to form complete entity definitions.<sup id="cite_ref-Lee99_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee99-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p><a href="EXPRESS_(data_modeling_language)" title="EXPRESS (data modeling language)">EXPRESS</a> was created as ISO 10303-11 for formally specifying information requirements of product data model. It is part of a suite of standards informally known as the STandard for the Exchange of Product model data (STEP). It was first introduced in the early 1990s.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The language, according to Lee (1999), is a textual representation. In addition, a graphical subset of EXPRESS called EXPRESS-G is available. EXPRESS is based on programming languages and the O-O paradigm. A number of languages have contributed to EXPRESS. In particular, Ada, Algol, C, C++, Euler, Modula-2, Pascal, PL/1, and SQL. EXPRESS consists of language elements that allow an unambiguous object definition and specification of constraints on the objects defined. It uses SCHEMA declaration to provide partitioning and it supports specification of data properties, constraints, and operations.<sup id="cite_ref-Lee99_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee99-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>UML is a modeling language for specifying, visualizing, constructing, and documenting the artifacts, rather than processes, of software systems. It was conceived originally by <a href="Grady_Booch" title="Grady Booch">Grady Booch</a>, <a href="James_Rumbaugh" title="James Rumbaugh">James Rumbaugh</a>, and <a href="Ivar_Jacobson" title="Ivar Jacobson">Ivar Jacobson</a>. UML was approved by the <a href="Object_Management_Group" title="Object Management Group">Object Management Group</a> (OMG) as a standard in 1997. The language, according to Lee (1999), is non-proprietary and is available to the public. It is a graphical representation. The language is based on the objected-oriented paradigm. UML contains notations and rules and is designed to represent data requirements in terms of O-O diagrams. UML organizes a model in a number of views that present different aspects of a system. The contents of a view are described in diagrams that are graphs with model elements. A diagram contains model elements that represent common O-O concepts such as classes, objects, messages, and relationships among these concepts.<sup id="cite_ref-Lee99_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee99-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>IDEF1X, EXPRESS, and UML all can be used to create a conceptual model and, according to Lee (1999), each has its own characteristics. Although some may lead to a natural usage (e.g., implementation), one is not necessarily better than another. In practice, it may require more than one language to develop all information models when an application is complex. In fact, the modeling practice is often more important than the language chosen.<sup id="cite_ref-Lee99_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee99-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Information models can also be expressed in formalized natural languages, such as <a href="Gellish" title="Gellish">Gellish</a>. Gellish, which has natural language variants <a href="Gellish_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Gellish English">Gellish Formal English</a>, Gellish Formal Dutch <a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gellish_Nederlands" class="extiw external" title="nl:Gellish Nederlands">(Gellish Formeel Nederlands)</a>, etc. is an information representation language or modeling language that is defined in the Gellish smart Dictionary-Taxonomy, which has the form of a <a href="Taxonomy_(general)" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxonomy (general)">Taxonomy</a>/<a href="Ontology_(information_science)" title="Ontology (information science)">Ontology</a>. A Gellish Database is not only suitable to store information models, but also knowledge models, requirements models and dictionaries, taxonomies and ontologies. Information models in Gellish English use Gellish Formal English expressions. For example, a geographic information model might consist of a number of Gellish Formal English expressions, such as: <br>

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<pre>- the Eiffel tower <is located in> Paris

- Paris <is classified as a> city

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<p>whereas information requirements and knowledge can be expressed for example as follows:

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<pre>- tower <shall be located in a> geographical area

- city <is a kind of> geographical area

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<p>Such Gellish expressions use names of concepts (such as 'city') and relation types (such as <span class="nowrap">⟨is located in⟩</span> and <span class="nowrap">⟨is classified as a⟩</span>) that should be selected from the Gellish Formal English Dictionary-Taxonomy (or of your own domain dictionary). The Gellish English Dictionary-Taxonomy enables the creation of semantically rich information models, because the dictionary contains definitions of more than 40000 concepts, including more than 600 standard relation types. Thus, an information model in Gellish consists of a collection of Gellish expressions that use those phrases and dictionary concepts to express facts or make statements, queries and answers.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Standard_sets_of_information_models">Standard sets of information models</h2></div>

<p>The <a href="Distributed_Management_Task_Force" title="Distributed Management Task Force">Distributed Management Task Force</a> (DMTF) provides a standard set of information models for various enterprise domains under the general title of the <a href="Common_Information_Model_(computing)" title="Common Information Model (computing)">Common Information Model</a> (CIM). Specific information models are derived from CIM for particular management domains.

</p><p>The <a href="TeleManagement_Forum" class="mw-redirect" title="TeleManagement Forum">TeleManagement Forum</a> (TMF) has defined an advanced model for the Telecommunication domain (the <a href="Frameworx_Shared_Information/Data_Model" class="mw-redirect" title="Frameworx Shared Information/Data Model">Shared Information/Data model</a>, or SID) as another. This includes views from the business, service and resource domains within the Telecommunication industry. The TMF has established a set of principles that an <a href="Operational_Support_Systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Operational Support Systems">OSS</a> integration should adopt, along with a set of models that provide standardized approaches.

</p><p>The models interact with the information model (the <a href="Frameworx_Shared_Information/Data_Model" class="mw-redirect" title="Frameworx Shared Information/Data Model">Shared Information/Data Model</a>, or SID), via a <a href="Process_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Process model">process model</a> (the <a href="Business_Process_Framework_(eTOM)" title="Business Process Framework (eTOM)">Business Process Framework (eTOM)</a>, or eTOM) and a life cycle model.

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<ul><li><a href="Building_information_modeling" title="Building information modeling">Building information modeling</a></li>

<li><a href="Concept_map" title="Concept map">Concept map</a></li>

<li><a href="Conceptual_model_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Conceptual model (computer science)">Conceptual model (computer science)</a></li>

<li><a href="System_information_modelling" title="System information modelling">System information modelling</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-Lee99-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lee99_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lee99_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lee99_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lee99_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lee99_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lee99_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Y. Tina Lee (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tsapps.nist.gov/publication/get_pdf.cfm?pub_id=821265">"Information modeling from design to implementation"</a> National Institute of Standards and Technology.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Peter_Chen" title="Peter Chen">Peter Chen</a> (1976). "The Entity-Relationship Model - Towards a Unified View of Data". In: <i>ACM Transactions on database Systems</i>, Vol. 1, No.1, March, 1976.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cs-exhibitions.uni-klu.ac.at/index.php?id=185">The history of conceptual modeling</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120215001520/http://cs-exhibitions.uni-klu.ac.at/index.php?id=185">Archived</a> 2012-02-15 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> at uni-klu.ac.at.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">D. Appleton Company, Inc. (1985). "Integrated Information Support System: Information Modeling Manual, IDEF1 - Extended (IDEF1X)". ICAM Project Priority 6201, Subcontract #013-078846, USAF Prime Contract #F33615-80-C-5155, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, December, 1985.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">ISO 10303-11:1994(E), Industrial Automation Systems and Integration - Product Data Representation and Exchange - Part 11: The EXPRESS Language Reference Manual.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">D. Schenck and P. Wilson (1994). <i>Information Modeling the EXPRESS Way.</i> Oxford University Press, New York, NY, 1994.</span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

<ul><li>ISO/IEC TR9007 Conceptual Schema, 1986</li>

<li>Andries van Renssen, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121130015036/http://www.gellish.net/downloads/file/10-phd-gellish-a-generic-extensible-ontological-language.html">Gellish, A Generic Extensible Ontological Language</a>, (PhD, Delft University of Technology, 2005)</li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span> This article incorporates <a href="Copyright_status_of_works_by_the_federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Copyright status of works by the federal government of the United States">public domain material</a> from the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nist.gov">National Institute of Standards and Technology</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li><a href="Richard_Veryard" title="Richard Veryard">Richard Veryard</a> (1992). <i>Information modelling : practical guidance</i>. New York : Prentice Hall.</li>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFRepa2012" class="citation book cs1">Repa, Vaclav (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ck9XmXavfBEC"><i>Information Modeling of Organizations</i></a>. Bruckner Publishing. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-80-904661-3-5</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBerner2019" class="citation book cs1">Berner, Stefan (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://vdf.ch/information-modelling.html"><i>Information modelling, A method for improving understanding and accuracy in your collaboration</i></a>. vdf Zurich. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-7281-3943-6</bdi>.</cite></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li>RFC <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc3198">3198</a> – Terminology for Policy-Based Management</li></ul>

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</style><div id="Data_model52" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Data_model" title="Data model">Data model</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Main</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Data_architecture" title="Data architecture">Architecture</a></li>

<li><a href="Data_modeling" title="Data modeling">Modeling</a></li>

<li><a href="Data_structure" title="Data structure">Structure</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schemas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Conceptual_schema" title="Conceptual schema">Conceptual </a></li>

<li><a href="Logical_data_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Logical data model">Logical</a></li>

<li><a href="Physical_schema" title="Physical schema">Physical</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Database_model" title="Database model">Database</a></li>

<li><a href="Data_structure_diagram" title="Data structure diagram">Data structure diagram</a></li>

<li><a href="Entity%E2%80%93relationship_model" title="Entity–relationship model">Entity–relationship model</a> (<a href="Enhanced_entity%E2%80%93relationship_model" title="Enhanced entity–relationship model">enhanced</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Data_model_(GIS)" title="Data model (GIS)">Geographic</a></li>

<li><a href="Generic_data_model" title="Generic data model">Generic</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_data_model" title="Semantic data model">Semantic</a></li>

<li><a href="Common_data_model" title="Common data model">Common</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related models</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Data-flow_diagram" title="Data-flow diagram">Data-flow diagram</a></li>

<li><a href="Object_model" title="Object model">Object model</a></li>

<li><a href="Object%E2%80%93role_modeling" title="Object–role modeling">Object–role modeling</a></li>

<li><a href="Unified_Modeling_Language" title="Unified Modeling Language">Unified Modeling Language</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Database_design" title="Database design">Database design</a></li>

<li><a href="Business_process_modeling" title="Business process modeling">Business process modeling</a></li>

<li><a href="Core_architecture_data_model" title="Core architecture data model">Core architecture data model</a></li>

<li><a href="Enterprise_modelling" title="Enterprise modelling">Enterprise modelling</a></li>

<li><a href="Function_model" title="Function model">Function model</a></li>

<li><a href="Process_modeling" title="Process modeling">Process modeling</a></li>

<li><a href="XML_schema" title="XML schema">XML schema</a></li>

<li><a href="Data_Format_Description_Language" title="Data Format Description Language">Data Format Description Language</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Software_engineering336" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Software_engineering336" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">Software engineering</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Computer_programming" title="Computer programming">Computer programming</a></li>

<li><a href="DevOps" title="DevOps">DevOps</a></li>

<li><a href="Empirical_software_engineering" title="Empirical software engineering">Empirical software engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Experimental_software_engineering" title="Experimental software engineering">Experimental software engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Formal_methods" title="Formal methods">Formal methods</a></li>

<li><a href="Requirements_engineering" title="Requirements engineering">Requirements engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Search-based_software_engineering" title="Search-based software engineering">Search-based software engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Site_reliability_engineering" title="Site reliability engineering">Site reliability engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_software_engineering" title="Social software engineering">Social software engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_deployment" title="Software deployment">Software deployment</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_design" title="Software design">Software design</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_maintenance" title="Software maintenance">Software maintenance</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_testing" title="Software testing">Software testing</a></li>

<li><a href="Systems_analysis" title="Systems analysis">Systems analysis</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Abstraction_(computer_science)" title="Abstraction (computer science)">Abstraction</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_compatibility" title="Computer compatibility">Compatibility</a>

<ul><li><a href="Backward_compatibility" title="Backward compatibility">Backward compatibility</a></li>

<li><a href="Compatibility_layer" title="Compatibility layer">Compatibility layer</a></li>

<li><a href="Compatibility_mode" title="Compatibility mode">Compatibility mode</a></li>

<li><a href="Forward_compatibility" title="Forward compatibility">Forward compatibility</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_incompatibility" title="Software incompatibility">Software incompatibility</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Component-based_software_engineering" title="Component-based software engineering">Component-based software engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Data_modeling" title="Data modeling">Data modeling</a></li>

<li><a href="Enterprise_architecture" title="Enterprise architecture">Enterprise architecture</a></li>

<li><a href="Functional_specification" title="Functional specification">Functional specification</a></li>

<li><a href="Modeling_language" title="Modeling language">Modeling language</a></li>

<li><a href="Programming_paradigm" title="Programming paradigm">Programming paradigm</a></li>

<li><a href="Software" title="Software">Software</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_archaeology" title="Software archaeology">Software archaeology</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_architecture" title="Software architecture">Software architecture</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_configuration_management" title="Software configuration management">Software configuration management</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_development_process" title="Software development process">Software development process/methodology</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_quality" title="Software quality">Software quality</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_quality_assurance" title="Software quality assurance">Software quality assurance</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_system" title="Software system">Software system</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_verification_and_validation" title="Software verification and validation">Software verification and validation</a></li>

<li><a href="Structured_analysis" title="Structured analysis">Structured analysis</a>

<ul><li><a href="Essential_systems_analysis" title="Essential systems analysis">Essential analysis</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Orientations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Agile_software_development" title="Agile software development">Agile</a></li>

<li><a href="Aspect-oriented_programming" title="Aspect-oriented programming">Aspect-oriented</a></li>

<li><a href="Object-oriented_programming" title="Object-oriented programming">Object orientation</a></li>

<li><a href="Ontology_(information_science)" title="Ontology (information science)">Ontology</a></li>

<li><a href="Service-oriented_architecture" title="Service-oriented architecture">Service orientation</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Models</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Developmental</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Agile_software_development" title="Agile software development">Agile</a></li>

<li><a href="Executable_UML" title="Executable UML">Executable UML</a></li>

<li><a href="Incremental_build_model" title="Incremental build model">Incremental model</a></li>

<li><a href="Iterative_and_incremental_development" title="Iterative and incremental development">Iterative model</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_prototyping" title="Software prototyping">Prototype model</a></li>

<li><a href="Scrum_(software_development)" title="Scrum (software development)">Scrum</a></li>

<li><a href="Spiral_model" title="Spiral model">Spiral model</a></li>

<li><a href="V-model_(software_development)" title="V-model (software development)">V-model</a></li>

<li><a href="Waterfall_model" title="Waterfall model">Waterfall model</a></li>

<li><a href="Model-driven_engineering" title="Model-driven engineering">Model-driven engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Round-trip_engineering" title="Round-trip engineering">Round-trip engineering</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Data_model" title="Data model">Data model</a></li>

<li><a href="Entity%E2%80%93relationship_model" title="Entity–relationship model">ER model</a></li>

<li><a href="Function_model" title="Function model">Function model</a></li>

<li><a href="Metamodeling" title="Metamodeling">Metamodeling</a></li>

<li><a href="Object_model" title="Object model">Object model</a></li>

<li><a href="ISO/IEC_15504" title="ISO/IEC 15504">SPICE</a></li>

<li><a href="Systems_modeling" title="Systems modeling">Systems model</a></li>

<li><a href="View_model" title="View model">View model</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Systems_modeling_language" title="Systems modeling language">SysML</a></li>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Systems_design" title="Systems design">Systems design</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Software_requirements_specification" title="Software requirements specification"> Requirements</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Functional_requirement" title="Functional requirement">Functional requirement</a></li>

<li><a href="Non-functional_requirement" title="Non-functional requirement">Non-functional requirement</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Capacity_planning" title="Capacity planning"> Capacity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Active_users" title="Active users"> Users</a></li>

<li><a href="Central_processing_units" class="mw-redirect" title="Central processing units"> Compute</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_memory" title="Computer memory"> Memory</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_data_storage" title="Computer data storage"> Storage</a></li>

<li><a href="Bandwidth_(computing)" title="Bandwidth (computing)"> Network</a></li>

<li><a href="Web_traffic" title="Web traffic">Web traffic</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Interface_(computing)" title="Interface (computing)"> Interface</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="GraphQL" title="GraphQL">GraphQL</a></li>

<li><a href="Webhook" title="Webhook">Webhook</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="High-level_design" title="High-level design">High-level design</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Client_(computing)" title="Client (computing)"> Client</a></li>

<li><a href="Load_balancing_(computing)" title="Load balancing (computing)"> Load balancing</a></li>

<li><a href="Application_server" title="Application server">Application server</a></li>

<li><a href="Message_queue" title="Message queue">Message queue</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="System_Integration" class="mw-redirect" title="System Integration"> Integration</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Vertical_integration" title="Vertical integration"> Vertical</a></li>

<li><a href="API_management" title="API management"> API Gateway</a></li>

<li><a href="Event_store" title="Event store"> Event Source</a></li>

<li><a href="Batch_processing" title="Batch processing"> Batch</a></li>

<li><a href="Stream_processing" title="Stream processing">Stream</a></li>

<li><a href="Orchestration_(computing)" title="Orchestration (computing)"> Orchestration</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Architectures" class="mw-redirect" title="Architectures">Architectures</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Monolithic_application" title="Monolithic application"> Monolithic</a></li>

<li><a href="Microservices" title="Microservices">Microservices</a></li>

<li><a href="Event-driven_architecture" title="Event-driven architecture"> Event-Driven</a></li>

<li><a href="Client%E2%80%93server_model" title="Client–server model"> Client–server</a></li>

<li><a href="Serverless_computing" title="Serverless computing"> Serverless</a></li>

<li><a href="Circuit_breaker_design_pattern" title="Circuit breaker design pattern"> Circuit breaker</a></li>

<li><a href="Rate_limiting" title="Rate limiting">Rate limiting</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Database" title="Database">Database</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Relational_database" title="Relational database"> Relational</a></li>

<li><a href="NoSQL" title="NoSQL">NoSQL</a></li>

<li><a href="Graph_database" title="Graph database"> Graph</a></li>

<li><a href="Key%E2%80%93value_database" title="Key–value database"> Key–value</a></li>

<li><a href="Time_series_database" title="Time series database"> Time series</a></li>

<li><a href="Data_orientation" title="Data orientation"> Column Oriented</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Systems_design" title="Systems design"> Principles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Consistency_(database_systems)" title="Consistency (database systems)">Consistency</a></li>

<li><a href="Reliability_engineering" title="Reliability engineering">Reliability</a></li>

<li><a href="CAP_theorem" title="CAP theorem">CAP theorem</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_maintenance" title="Software maintenance"> Maintainability</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_configuration" title="Computer configuration"> Configurability</a></li>

<li><a href="Modularity" title="Modularity">Modularity</a></li>

<li><a href="Durability_(database_systems)" title="Durability (database systems)"> Durability</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Scalability" title="Scalability">Scalability</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Service_statelessness_principle" title="Service statelessness principle"> Stateless</a></li>

<li><a href="Asynchronous_I/O" title="Asynchronous I/O">Asynchronous I/O</a></li>

<li><a href="Loose_coupling" title="Loose coupling">Loose coupling</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Availability" title="Availability">Availability</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Fault_tolerance" title="Fault tolerance">Fault tolerance</a></li>

<li><a href="Failover" title="Failover">Failover</a></li>

<li><a href="Single_point_of_failure" title="Single point of failure">Single point of failure</a></li>

<li><a href="Replication_(computing)" title="Replication (computing)"> Replication</a></li>

<li><a href="Consistent_hashing" title="Consistent hashing">Consistent hashing</a></li>

<li><a href="Circuit_breaker_design_pattern" title="Circuit breaker design pattern"> Circuit breaker</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Latency_(engineering)" title="Latency (engineering)">Latency</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cache_(computing)" title="Cache (computing)"> Cache</a></li>

<li><a href="Shard_(database_architecture)" title="Shard (database architecture)"> Shard </a></li>

<li><a href="Database_index" title="Database index">Database index</a></li>

<li><a href="Cache_prefetching" title="Cache prefetching"> Pre-caching</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Computer_data_storage" title="Computer data storage"> Storage</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Object_storage" title="Object storage">Object storage</a></li>

<li><a href="Block-level_storage" title="Block-level storage"> Block storage</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Observability_(software)" title="Observability (software)"> Observability</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Logging_(computing)" title="Logging (computing)"> Logging</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_metric" title="Software metric"> Metrics</a></li>

<li><a href="Tracing_(software)" title="Tracing (software)"> Tracing </a></li>

<li><a href="Failure_rate" title="Failure rate"> Error rate </a></li>

<li><a href="Queries_per_second" title="Queries per second">Queries per second </a></li>

<li><a href="Notification_system" title="Notification system">Notification system</a></li>

<li><a href="Anomaly_detection" title="Anomaly detection">Anomaly detection</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Computer_engineering" title="Computer engineering">Computer engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_science" title="Computer science">Computer science</a></li>

<li><a href="Information_science" title="Information science">Information science</a></li>

<li><a href="Project_management" title="Project management">Project management</a></li>

<li><a href="Risk_management" title="Risk management">Risk management</a></li>

<li><a href="Systems_engineering" title="Systems engineering">Systems engineering</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div>

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category</li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Software_engineering" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Software engineering">Commons</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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